太平天国︱基督徒还是异端:欧州人对上帝教的认识
【编者按】2021年是太平天国金田起义170周年。澎湃新闻·私家历史与北京大学历史学系助理教授刘晨共同邀请国内外学者撰写系列稿件,向读者介绍“太史”研究的新方向、新成果,也希望对相关研究有所助力。
经过前人的努力,太平天国建都南京后的有关资料得以大量发掘,并结集出版。这些史料的大部分出自江南文人之手,都是将太平军作为“贼”加以描述。其中也有一部分是传教士访问太平天国后所记述下来的西文资料,这部分史料主要是描述1860年代太平天国进军到上海附近后的活动。这一时期已经是太平天国衰退期,将兵纪律涣散,大部分资料描述的太平天国已经与天京事变前的太平天国有了很大的差异。
本文介绍的资料是过去不曾引人注目的,1850年代欧洲人介绍与评介太平天国的资料,目前收藏于日本东洋文库的莫理循(George Fornest Morrison;1862-1920)文库。这些新史料主要呈现了太平天国的宗教面向,也有一些描述太平天国统治之下的民众生活场景,特别是一些画像值得注目。
要介绍的第一本书是《中国的革命 :引发革命的原因》(The Chinese Revolution:The Causes which led to it)。该书封面有一幅画像,图景是以十字架作为武器,它反映了当时欧洲人对太平天国的期待,希望这是一场教化中国的基督教运动。
该书作者不明,从序文中看出,作者并没有访问过南京。但是,在第五章《前往南京》中,有英国公使文翰(S.G.Bonham) 对南京的详细描述。由此可以推测,作者是根据公使的报告中对当时南京城内处处充满活力的样子进行描绘的。本书值得注目的是在南京与密迪乐(T.T.Meadows)一起会见北王韦昌辉的英军上尉Lieutenant Sprat的书信。他描述太平军有强烈的使命感,清军无能,太平军得到民众的支持,热心于打破既有的社会秩序,特别是偶像崇拝,现记述如下:
They believe they have a mission from heaven to kill all the Mantchoos, and they certainly put this in execution as far as they can; and, without attempting to justify this practice, I believe that nothing short of driving the Tartars out of the country can make civilization progressive in China……
Confidence was said to be on the increase among the old population, and they were gradually returning to their homes, and I fully believe this to be the case, as we saw many carrying furniture and clothes, etc., into the city. We observed, also, that the houses of the better classes of Chinese were sealed up by the insurgent chiefs, I fancy to prevent their being plundered; not so those of the Mantchoos, which they evidently consider fair game─the disgorgement of unjust gain and plunder from them for other Chinese. Their clear principle is, China for Chinese.(p.127)
由此看出,太平天国的将兵们相信诛灭所有满人是一种上帝赋予的使命。虽然他们没有用理论来把这一行为正当化,但Sprat也认为为了中国“文明的进步(civilization progressive)”,应当驱逐清朝。此外,有关他们看到南京人口正在逐步恢复,人们正在往城内搬迁家财和衣物的描述,给人明确的信息是,这是“中国人的中国”,那些有钱人的豪宅被太平军首领霸占、满人的财产被没收的做法,是没有道理可以指责的。
其次,Sprat指出,太平天国的人有严格的伦理规范,他们尽量男女隔离,他们的法庭对诉讼人开放,与清政府衙门实施酷刑的做法不同。人民将太平军称之为“圣军(Holy Army)”,把南京称之为“圣都”,相互称之为“兄弟”。Sprat还对太平天国占领南京时制造的虐杀旗人事件做了如下的评价:
It is horrible to think that they cut off 20,000 Mantchoos, even to the infant at breast, but they seem hostile only to them; but it is still more horrible to think that the Mantchoos, in two of the many provinces, cut off as many in the name of justice within the year(we know of 2,000 in six weeks); and this in the name of justice! The former is the exception, the latter is the rule. It may prove the least sanguinary practice in the end. Like Cromwell’s severity at Drogheda, it has struck terror into their opponents; the Mantchoos are chapfallen and almost afraid to approach them; they say that six of them would beat any twenty imperialists; They talk of their strength, when we know a multitude of them are but boys, and or their red eyes, etc.
If they succeed,─and I fancy they will, and soon─they will deliver three hundred millions from the grossest of immoralities, the most grovelling of idolatries, and the most grinding of tyrannies. China will be opened to light, life and civilization, all which will be thrown with all their influences and importance into the Anglo-Saxon scale.(pp.128)
Sprat对太平军虐杀包括儿童在内的两万多旗人的事件确实感到恐怖,但是,太平军虐杀的对象限定在怀有敌意的人群。他认为,太平军的做法与清朝在这一年中以正义的名义制造的虐杀行为不同。太平军的屠杀是一个个案,与此相反,清朝则将屠杀作为一种统治手段,相较之下更加可怕。这与同时期访问南京的费煕邦(E.G Fishbourne)的看法大相径庭,费煕邦不相信发生过这样的事件,Sprat看法其实比较冷静。Sprat还指出,南京事件后,满人意气消沉,不敢与太平军对抗,与此相反,太平天国的人哪怕是小孩,对清军一点也不惧怕。依据这些事实,Sprat认为,假如太平天国成功,中国三亿人就有可能从非道德、到处是偶像崇拜、专制统治之下获得解放,就会出现如同欧洲人一样的文明,故而他充满期待。
英国公使文翰一行结束南京访问后又去了镇江,与罗大纲见面,交换了一些看法,探讨了今后英国是配合太平天国还是与之交战的前景。这部分内容与费煕邦著作《中国印象记》(Impression of China)记述的内容基本一致。当时英文史料常有相互引用的情况,但从出版年代来看,本书的内容可以认为是比较原始的。本书第5章、第9章以及《叛军的教义》(The Doctrines of the Insurgents)介绍了《北华捷报》刊登的太平天国文书、麦都思(Medhurst)的评论和牧师的信件,还介绍了收录于《颁行诏书》的杨秀清檄文,记叙了杨秀清驱逐大搞偶像崇拜的满人、崇拜上帝的主张,并对太平天国的宗教做了如下的介绍:
From the foregoing curious documents, we are justified in inferring that there is evidently a tingle of fanaticism and of imposture in the religious cry raised by the insurgents, for, while they profess to venerate the religion of Jesus Christ, they do not scruple to style their own leader the younger brother of our load, who, they say, came down from heaven for the instruction of mankind in the Ting-yew year(1837), so that, although the foundation of their faith may be Christian, there is nothing to show that the superstructure is not as extravagant a superstition as Mormonism itself; and, as in the course of this narrative we have too frequently seen, they proselytize by massacre as much as by faith. Their belief in a special mission to destroy the Mantchoos—man, woman, and child , so that there may not be left a sprout for the race to reproduce itself—must certainly prove a bar to our perfect sympathy with them; and we are not surprised at the assiduity with which the English are recommending to their notice the New Testament in preference to the Old.(pp.166)
由此看出,作者认为,太平天国的宗教呐喊中有狂热和欺诈的痛苦。其基础是基督教,虽然他们没有像摩门教(19世纪美国出现的一种基督教派)那样的迷信性,但他们用信仰与虐杀强迫他人改教。太平天国以去除满人为使命,这种信仰成为了欧洲人同情他们的绊脚石。英国人规劝他们重视新约,不要偏信旧约,这一行为也是可以理解的。本书在其他段落中也将太平天国教义中的强烈攻击性与伊斯兰教和摩门教派进行了比较,对太平天国对旗人复仇心和一夫多妻制(领导人的好色),以及对统治权的渴望抱有疑虑。
本书第10章《关于革命的政治性与商业性的侧面》中预测,太平天国不断发展后,商人们方便携带黄金的需求量将不断提高。清朝把鸦片交易合法化,将给印度和英国(东印度公司)带来很大的影响。其中还指出,与革命进展不同,茶叶和内陆商品的出口量将减少。第11章《广东和北京现状与未来》中,作者已经看到了在戒严之下,由于受到秘密会党的影响,广东居民将出现反清动向。有钱人将携带财产外出避难,广东会轻而易举地被占领,而北京一旦陷落,广东人就会支持太平天国。
更有意思的是作者对北京的记述。由于无法支撑庞大的军费开支,很多钱庄相继倒闭,米价暴涨,贫民受到了很大打击。北京的粮食一向依赖大运河的运输,最近也开通一些海上运输。但是,自从南京陷落后,大运河无法运输,加紧策划从台湾运米过来。但是,有多少成效值得怀疑。财政困难的清政府没收了打败仗的钦差大臣赛尚阿、徐广缙的财产,对一些军事将领处以死刑,这种做法事实上是政府的自杀行为。在南京被太平军杀害的陆建瀛的家族也受到了严酷的处罚,穆彰阿、耆英等有钱贵族的捐输也引起社会的反感。由此可见,当时的欧洲人进行了多方面的信息收集,关注着太平天国是否成功及其对经济的影响。
下面要介绍的这本书是《中国的革命:中国与中国人的习性、做派和风俗等面面观》(The Chinese Revolution, With Details of the Habits, Manners, and Customs of China and the Chinese),著者是Charles Macfarlane。该作者以《日本》《威灵顿的生涯》两本书扬名天下。这本书正文分三章,记述了从清朝入关到太平天国占领南京的过程,附录收录了太平天国相关史料10种。引人注目的是附录3《宗教信仰(Religious belief)》的有关史料,例举了上帝教“优点(Good points)”和“错误(Errors)”7类。
“优点”方面,第一是他们对独一真神的信仰(Belief in the One True God)。作者指出,上帝教的教义来自于旧约圣经和中国的古典。根据太平天国的主张,太古的中国人崇拜真神,基督教诞生之前,秦始皇开始偶像崇拜,放弃了对上帝的信仰。这个说法被认为是《西学中国起源论》的一个例子,认为欧洲思想和文化起源来自于中华文明。但是,作者并没有将该论调批判为荒唐无稽,而将之评价为他们对独一真神信仰的忠实。第二是“摩西十诫的受容(Adoption of the Decalogue)”,关于太平天国严格禁止偶像崇拜这一点,他以大多数非基督教人都赞扬的第五天条“孝顺父母”为教示,与世人不拜天父皇上帝的冷漠态度相比较,更好地说明了敬拜上帝的必要。此外,他还特别记述了关于太平天国严禁奸邪淫乱一事,第七天条主张“不好奸邪淫乱”,“及吹洋烟,唱邪歌,皆是犯天条”。第三是对他们“赞美天堂(Recognition of the Future State)”的评价,认为他们持有天堂与地狱的概念。
对于太平天国的“错误”,评论者列举:第一,他们对基督教真理的理解不完整(Defective Notions of Christian Truth.)。第二,他们否定“三位一体”说(Denial of the Trinity)。众所周知,后来洪秀全就“三位一体”说与传教士展开了论争。但是,由于当时欧洲人收集到的太平天国文献比较少,即便是太平天国无视了新约圣经教诲的存在,评论者对太平天国的指责,也采取了慎重的态度。此外,太平天国第三、第四的“错误”是“一夫多妻(Polygamy)”。他们评论如下:
I can not condemn them on account of these things so immediately and strongly as many do. Their obtaining among them, illustrates and confirms the view that they have not got the New Testament Scriptures, nor learned much from European or American missionaries. It is, believing this, that I cannot think very unfavourably or unhopefully of them, because of their offerings and their many wives. Should it turn out that they do those things, having the whole revealed will of God before them, and having had it enforced upon them in those very points by instructors, my opinion of them in those will be greatly modified. But at present, while from other grounds I infer their ignorance of our Christian records, there does not appear to me anything very culpable in the practices we are considering.(p.216)
由此看出,太平天国领导人多妻的做法,是他们没有学习新约圣经以及欧美传教士所布之道的结果。不过,评论者并没有指责太平天国的多妻制,或是用失望的眼光看待此事,而是持有同情的心情。他认为既然这也是上帝的意志,那么,现在他们无视欧洲基督教的价值观,这没有令人导致太多的失望,只要提高伦理道德,他们就会放弃多妻制。为此,他认为很有必要对他们进行充分的教育,让他们知道《创世纪》第二章中有关亚当与夏娃的故事。
太平天国领导人的多妻制后来成为欧美传教士指责其异端性的重要论据,特别是在香港居住过的洪仁拥有多位妻子的事情遭到了激烈的批评。Sprat在信件中也谈到了这个问题,说是太平王有36个妻子,但一般的太平军并不能这样做。他们认为,这是太平天国的领导人知识不足,他们只了解旧约,不知道新约而造成的后果。由此看出,对于欧洲人来说,从第一次接触太平天国起,多妻制就成了他们的关注点。
Charles Macfarlane的著作还收录了传教士对太平天国认识的重要史料。其中之一是香港维多利亚主教(bishop of the Victoria)J. Smith的信件,他对太平天国的宗教评论有多种说法,类似摩门教派,也像清教徒,但其真实形象不明。在文翰一行收集到的信息中,太平天国的宗教是基督教、迷信以及中国特有观念的混合物,但是,郭士立(K. Gutzlaff)翻译的圣经又在他们的帐篷中随处可见。他们是决不妥协的偶像破坏主义者(iconoclasts),与天主教似乎没有交流。此外,他们把外国人称为“洋兄弟”,持友好态度,除了鸦片之外,他们都有意与外国人做生意。文翰等人预测,太平天国只把南京作为临时首都,近期内,他们将向北京进攻。
Smith根据这些信息做出积极的评价,认为从太平天国领导人身上可以看到太平军对宗教的诚实和市民的爱国心,现在中国正面临社会巨变,英国教会应该从本国派遣优秀的人才,到中国来提高中国的基督教化水平。他还警告,英国作为拥有殖民地的帝国,假如不能完成这些使命,只顾追求自身荣华与富贵,最后将会从光荣的宝座上跌下来。
有关Smith对太平天国的评价,呤唎(A.F. Lindley)在《太平天国革命亲历记》中有所提及。但呤唎引用的是当时在广东的传教士寄给《China Mail》编者的文章《叛军宗教的特征》(The Religious Character of insurgents)。
《叛军宗教的特征》比较详细地介绍了洪秀全看到《劝世良言》后,如何在罗孝全(I. J. Roberts)那里学习的经过,谈及1852年逃到香港后洪仁的证言。《叛军宗教的特征》介绍的内容与罗孝全的《洪秀全革命之真相》相似,但作者却不是罗孝全。《叛军宗教的特征》还记述了洪仁与韩山文(T. Hamberg)相会的传闻。但作者也不是韩山文,很可能是在广州做过传教、医疗和教育工作的哈巴(A.P.Happer)。
《叛军宗教的特征》这篇文章的特点是,虽然谈及拜上帝会所遭遇的迫害和苦难,但却否定了太平天国的武装起义。文章认为,太平天国的主义和行动没有一个能够让人满意的。他们在“上帝的奇迹之手”帮助下的所作所为,是充满憎恶与狂热的、赤裸裸的杀人行为。他们在旧约圣经的影响下,大搞偶像破坏,杀害佛教僧侣,这种做法与其说是耶稣所为,更不如说与地狱恶魔之王彼列(Berial)同出一辙。文章还披露了太平天国发动的杀人事件如下:
What has marked the whole course of this desolating scourge but plunder and exaction, bloodshed and murder─in many cases the most wanton and brutal murder of the peaceful and unresisting people, as well as of the officers and Tartars. The ears of the Canton people yet tingle at the mention of the wholesale and indiscriminate massacre of men, women, and children, at Tsiuen-chau city, in the north east corner of Kwang-si province. The number massacred at the capture of the three cities of Wu-chang, Han-yang, and Han-kau, will never be accurately known. Some letters state, that they themselves spoke, with the greatest coldness of feeling, of having massacred twenty-five thousand persons at the capture of Nankin.(p.132)
笔者曾在其他论文中谈及,这里所记述的1852年6月太平天国在广西全州发动的屠杀事件并不是事实,而是因看到太平军绝不妥协的战斗形象而感到震惊的人们所虚构的情节。但是,从史料中可以得知,这个信息给人们以很大的冲击,并与武汉三镇死者人数不明、南京旗人死者多达25000人等消息一起传到了广东各地。文章认为,圣经虽然禁止偶像崇拝,但并没有命令他们采用暴力的手段来破坏偶像和寺庙,也没有命令杀僧人和旗人。文章还主张上海的传教士应该好好教诲他们,基督教不允许人们拿武器来抵抗迫害。
Charles Macfarlane指出,这两个传教士的议论都太过极端,在《叛军宗教的特征》中也认同太平天国怀有对超越世间的存在的信仰。儒教没有信仰的感情,在那冰冷的哲学中得不到满足而皈依佛教的人们也只能崇拜偶像,他认为那时的中国需要新的宗教,而太平天国是苦于帝国残酷统治的人民发起的一场运动。对于太平天国采用暴力手段的是非善恶,Charles Macfarlane表明了以下的见解:
As to the deduction of“conservative,”that these people cannot be Chriatians of any kind, because they wage war and shed blood, it is to be observed that Christianity never yet, immediately and on its first introduction, changed the whole character of a people. The English, the French, the Germans, the Spanish, the Italians, all engaged in wars after their conversion, and continued to carry on wars with ferocity and cruelty mane ages after Christianity had been preached to them, and their countries covered with Christian churches. One of the very first results of the Reformation was a long and bloody war, in which it can scarcely be said that the Protestants were much more gentle or merciful than the Romanist. The true Christian spirits was developed in Europe by very slow degrees; and how far we are, even at this days, from possessing it in fullness and purity, the last Annual Register , or the last newspapers, the records of a single week, or a glance at the actual condition of Europe(where the flames of war may be rekindled tomorrow), will give us sufficient proof and conviction.
We confess that we cling to the belief or hope that, however imperfectly, some seeds of the pure faith have been sown in China, and that great and happy results may be anticipated therefrom. At least this is clear,─the Chinese have had awakening. Better almost anything than the dead sleep in which they have been lying for so many ages. Their condition, their vices, their government, their irreligion, were all so bad, that almost any change must be for the better. The empire was as a gangrened, putrefying corpse. There is at least life in this insurrectional movement. (p.137)
以上内容指出,欧洲接受基督教后也曾经多次发生过战争与暴力,宗教改革的结果也是长期的流血战争。我们不能说将基督教跟天主教相比,哪一个是更绅士的或者慈悲的。即便是真正的基督教精神在欧洲也是在一个非常缓慢的过程中发展起来的。现在能够确定的是,在中国传播的基督教即便还不完全,但也已经播下了种子,和当时正在觉醒的中国发生了联系。
Charles Macfarlane在发现太平天国宗教中不宽容的攻击性后,并没有把他们看成异端,而是对欧洲基督教社会进行内在反省,同时对太平天国进行了积极的评价。这种论调是过去研究中所遗漏的部分。呤唎为了批判英国对中国的政策,而简又文为了证明他所提倡的“太平基督教”的正当性,都具有将上帝教的性质单纯化的倾向,其后欧洲人中将太平天国视为异端的倾向开始加强。然而在1860年7月的《北华捷报》上刊登了一则评论,指出欧洲的基督教历史也是带着血腥味的,因为太平军和过去的欧洲正统基督教徒一样进行了过激的偶像破坏行为,而批判太平天国为异端的做法是错误的。在屠杀旗人中所表现出来的太平天国的排他性,是和福音主义的热情一起,从近代欧洲向全世界传播的犹太基督教思想的产物。可以说太平天国促成了欧洲人面对这一情况进行反省。
接下来要介绍的是J. Milton Mackie的《太平王的生涯——中国的叛乱首领》(Life of Tai-ping-wang, Chief of the Chinese insurrection)一书。该书出版于稍晚的1857年,以在杂志和书籍中介绍过的太平天国信息为基础,分47章描绘了洪秀全从幼年到南京占领时期的生涯。在记录了太平天国宗教思想的第43章“叛军的信条(The insurgent Creed)”中,用了一句简短的话来概括上帝教的主张,就是“只有上帝一个神,太平王是耶稣的弟弟(There is no God but God; and Tai-ping-Wang is the younger brother of Jesus.)”。此外书中还有数枚很有意思的插图,描绘了1837年洪秀全的幻梦、拜上帝会军队的起义、与清军的战斗、南京报恩寺附近的攻防战等。穿着白衣的上帝和让人联想起十字军的太平军可以说是欧洲人所抱有的太平天国形象。
在这本书中还收录了几封传教士的书信。比如说,天主教主教田嘉璧在信中记载了1852年江西的人们期待太平军到来的情形,还有1853年接到洪秀全来信的罗孝全给美国驻华委员马沙利的信,其中询问了在太平天国占领地区进行传教的可能。其中还有一则从前不被关注的史料,是1853年8月天主教的湖广地区主教Mgr. Rizzolati给法国里昂和巴黎的中央评议会的信件:They(the insurgent kings)have placed all the resources in a common treasury, and reorganized society on a new plan, that is, in groups of a certain number of persons of both sexes, who are prohibited from cohabiting together, under the most severe penalties. This rule is to be observed until the whole China shall have been conquered. All honorary titles are abolished, except those of officers in the army. The men are to adopt the appellation of brothers, and the women that of sisters. Each family has two chiefs; a man for government of the male members, and a woman for the females; and over all these individual dignitaries a hierarchy is established, comprising general presidents of both sexes. All these confraternities live in common, at the expense of the public treasury; and all of them are bound to perform military service, the men under the command of a male leader, and the women under that of the female; for there are captains of both sexes. After the conquest of the empire, the families, whose military services may no longer be deemed necessary, are to return to their cities, where there is to be no distinction of rich and poor, but perfect equality. However, according to the laws of their communism, the king, the princes, and generals are to have the exclusive right of possession and acquisition, and the subalterns are to remain in the service of their chiefs, and to receive, in reward for these services, such food and clothing as the generosity of their masters may induce them to bestow.(Note C, p.280)
信里介绍了太平天国在永安州,武昌和南京所实施的圣库制度,描述了在完全推翻清朝之前要解散家族、进行男女别营的管理、否定贫富差距、施行“完全平均主义(perfect equality)”的情况。此外还提到王和将军们可以根据他们所制定的法律获得特权,在他们的王府中服侍的人们可以在那里获得衣物和粮食。1861年访问南京的英国将领吴士礼(G. J. Wolseley)也讲述到“人们在主人的旗饰下服役,由主人供给每日的食品、衣服等以及所有的日常用品”,从而可知,很早就已经可以从每个王府对其所属人员的赡养程度来推测王的能力有多大。
在东洋文库中还藏有《中国的基督教——其传教的历史和现在的叛乱》(The Christianity in China, The History of Christian missions, and of the present Insurrection)一书,其扉页收录了咸丰帝和洪秀全的画像。第12章“现在中国叛乱的起源和基督教的胜利发展”中用很大的篇幅介绍了太平天国发生的过程。此外,在《中国的传教――包括在全中国活动的各种教派的历史》(China Mission, Embracing a History of the various Missions of all Denominations among the Chinese)中虽然对太平天国的记述不多,但却对和太平天国有关系的传教士传记多有囊括,但是找不到罗孝全的传记,可以想见当时的传教团体中对罗孝全的评价不高。
咸丰帝与洪秀全,载于《中国的基督教——其传教的历史和现在的叛乱》结论本文以日本东洋文库所藏的建都南京时期太平天国相关英文史料为线索,探讨了欧洲人对上帝教的认识。他们中的大多数人在听到太平天国建都南京的消息时,都很期待中国能有机会成为一个基督教国家。与此同时,他们也对太平天国重视旧约的倾向、对旗人斩尽杀绝的屠杀、与欧洲习惯相背离的多妻制等方面抱有不少质疑。
实际上太平天国对旧约的重视,是受到当时在中国的传教士们影响的直接结果。作为客家人的洪秀全往往因其身份受到不平等待遇,自然会被因为失去祖国而流散各地的犹太人的旧约圣书内容强烈地吸引。被压抑民众的救济论所产生的报复性暴力推动了太平天国对旗人-偶像崇拜者的屠杀,了解到这一情况的传教士中也不乏反对暴力革命的人。此外对太平天国抱有同情心理的人之中,认为欧洲的基督教历史也是伴随着战争和暴力的,仅仅因为太平天国出于为弱者伸张正义而持有攻击性,是不能将他们定义为“异端”的。
近年在海外引起关注的Christopher Lloyd《What on Earth Happened? The Complete Story of the Planet, Life and People from the Big Bang to the Present Day》中对中国文明作为史上少有的强韧的文明持续到今天进行了高度的评价。但是另一方面,他认为太平天国是“人类史上最为恶劣的军事纷争”,这场战争的牺牲者超过了2000万人。造成如此巨大牺牲的原因之一,显然正是太平天国所接受的犹太基督教千年王国论救济思想。过去将这样残酷的现实过度美化,或者是有些人将太平天国宗教贴上邪教的标签,从而使犹太教救济思想得以开脱责任的情况应该不会再出现。